Sydney: Methods
Summary of methods
Table N3 outlines the quantification approaches used to derive the item volumes for the Sydney region. For a more detailed description of the quantification approach, click on the relevant item name in the table.
Table N3 Methods used to derive item volumes
| Approach or data used | Item | Source |
| Water storage product data | Storages | EnergyAustralia, Goulburn Mulwaree Council, Lithgow City Council, Shoalhaven City Council, WaterNSW and Wingecarribee Shire Council |
| AWRA-R model | Rivers | Bureau of Meteorology |
| Database, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and meter readings | Inter-region claim on water | Department of Industry, Lands and Water; WaterNSW |
| Database, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and meter readings | Claims: inter-region | Department of Industry, Lands and Water |
| Not quantified |
|
| Approach or data used | Item | Source |
| Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Unregulated River Water Sources, Water resourcing licence database, annual reports and meter readings | Department of Industry, Lands and Water; EnergyAustralia |
| Approach or data used | Item | Source |
| Stream monitoring data | Bureau of Meteorology; Department of Industry, Lands and Water; Sydney Water Corporation and WaterNSW | |
| AWRA-R model | ||
| Climate grid data and AWRA-L model | Bureau of Meteorology and WaterNSW | |
| Database, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and meter readings | EnergyAustralia and WaterNSW | |
| Metered and estimated data provided by water authorities |
|
WaterNSW and Sydney Water Corporation |
| Approach or data used | Item | Source |
| Database, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and meter readings | Sydney Water Corporation and WaterNSW | |
| Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Unregulated River Water Sources | Department of Industry, Lands and Water; EnergyAustralia |
Detail of methods
Water storage product data
Storages
Storage volume at the start and end of the year was calculated using water level data (metres above Australian Height Datum) collected at each storage. Capacity tables established for each storage were used to convert the height measurement to a volume.
The volume of individual storages was aggregated to present the total volume for the line item as detailed in the supporting information table. The uncertainty range for the storage volume is +/–5%.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- Storage–volume curves represent specifically surveyed parts of the storage and may not reflect the storage–volume relationship across the entire storage.
- Storages are subject to sedimentation and other physical changes over time, which in turn affect the accuracy of the storage–volume curves.
AWRA-R model
AWRA-R is a river network model that represents key hydrological processes and diversions at a daily time step (Dutta et al. 2017; 2015). The model was used in the National Water Account to quantify river fluxes and stores along the river network.
The river system is conceptualised in AWRA-R as a node-link network comprising nodes connected by river reaches. Gauged streamflow data are used where available. For ungauged portions of catchment, the landscape runoff from the AWRA-L model is used (Viney et al. 2015). River processes represented in the AWRA-R model are shown in Figure N1.
Figure N1 Conceptual diagram of AWRA-R reach showing model components (from Dutta et al. 2015)
For further detail on the AWRA-R model, its assumptions and its calibration refer to Dutta et al. (2015; 2017).
Rivers
The volume of water in the river channels at 30 June was estimated by using the daily water balance approach within AWRA-R. The water balance includes inflow at the upstream nodes and outflow at the downstream nodes; contributing catchment runoff, reservoir contribution, irrigation diversion and return; overbank flooding and floodplain return; loss to groundwater; anabranch flow; rainfall; and evaporation.
Flood return and overbank flow
The AWRA-R floodplain module was used to model the volume of overbank flow from the river onto the floodplain, and the return flow from the floodplain back into the river. The module applies a simple storage-based floodplain model to each river reach. The floodplain modelling method is detailed in Dutta et al. (2013).
Climate grid data and AWRA-L model
Precipitation and evaporation
Data source: Bureau of Meteorology
Rainfall and evaporation into/from storages and rivers were calculated using climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology interpolated to 0.05 degree (5 km) national grids (Jones et al. 2009). Calculations for rivers were carried out on a daily time step using the AWRA-R model. Calculations for storages were done on a monthly time step. Annual totals were summed from the daily or monthly values.
Climate data for each water body at each time step were estimated from the proportionally weighted average of grid-cells that intersected the water body. Evaporation was estimated using Morton's shallow lake formulation (Morton 1983). Climate data for each water body at each time step were estimated from the proportionally weighted average of grid-cells that intersected the water body. Evaporation was estimated using Morton's shallow lake formulation.
Data source: WaterNSW
WaterNSW provided precipitation data for the following storages: Avon Reservoir, Blue Mountains reservoirs, Cataract Reservoir, Cordeaux Reservoir, Fitzroy Falls Reservoir, Lake Burragorang (Warragamba Dam), Lake Yarrunga (Tallowa Dam), Nepean Reservoir, Prospect Reservoir, Wingecarribee Reservoir and Woronora Reservoir.
Rainfall received over the entire catchment area was calculated by interpolating rainfall values from point gauges (primarily tipping-bucket rain gauges). Rainfall volumes over storages were calculated by multiplying relevant surface areas and interpolated rainfall values. It was assumed that catchment average rainfall falls on the surface of a lake.
WaterNSW provided evaporation data also for the storages listed above. Measured pan evaporations were adjusted by a pan factor.
The precipitation and evaporation volumes were based on measured data. Estimated uncertainty based on accuracy of rain gauges, limitations in the calculation method and organisational practice is +/– 10%.
Runoff
Runoff to surface water in the Sydney region was estimated separately for:
- storages managed by WaterNSW
- storages not managed by WaterNSW
- runoff at gauging stations
- runoff for ungauged areas.
Runoff areas to storages, gauged area and modelled area are shown in Figure N2.
Figure N2 Runoff area to storages, gauged area and modelled area within the Sydney region
Data source: Bureau of Meteorology
Runoff to surface water was estimated based on the AWRA–L version 5.0 (Viney et al. 2015) model outputs.
Using climate grid data for the South East Queensland region (including precipitation, temperature and solar radiation data), the AWRA–L model was used to estimate the runoff depth at each grid cell within the region. Only runoff from the landscape was considered; therefore, the surface areas of the major reservoirs were excluded from the analysis.
The average runoff depth from the landscape into the connected surface water store was determined as the weighted mean of the relevant grid cells within the region boundary. Cells were weighted based upon the area they represented within the reporting region to remove edge effects (where the area represented is not wholly within the reporting region) and the effect of changing area represented with changing latitude. Runoff depth was converted to a runoff volume by multiplying runoff depth by the total area of the region (excluding storages).
The approach was subject to the assumptions of the AWRA–L model (detailed in Viney et al. 2015).
Data source: WaterNSW
Storages managed by WaterNSW contain sensors at the gauging sites which are linked to WaterNSW's radio telemetry system. Rating tables are used to convert water levels to a volume.
For all storages, mass balance calculation was used to estimate inflows to each storage. In the calculation, inflow, storage diversions, precipitation, evaporation and other known losses, and beginning and end storage volumes for each storage were balanced for the year. These volumes were either measured data or calculated data (interpolations, application of rating tables) from measured data.
Runoff at the gauging stations were calculated using the flow data received from WaterNSW and deducting the releases and diversions to the rivers at upstream of the gauging stations.
Estimated uncertainty based on meter accuracy, professional judgement on calculation methods and organisation practice is +/– 10%.
Outflow
Data source: WaterNSW
The river outflow from the region represents the volume of water that flows out of the Sydney region. It comprises:
- rule-based environmental flows, other unspecified releases, and spills from most downstream storages and weirs to rivers
- natural runoff from river catchments downstream from storages and weirs, and from streams leading to the sea (less downstream diversions)
- treated water releases from wastewater treatment plants.
For rule-based environmental flows, the water level in each river was monitored at these sites and converted to a flow volume using a rating table. The daily flows from these sites during reporting year were used to calculate the annual streamflow.
Natural runoff was estimated using available gauged flows. Runoff was estimated when gauges were not available.
Treated water releases from wastewater treatment plants were measured using meters.
The limitations associated with the calculations are:
- The level of uncertainty of these gauging stations is estimated at +/– 20 % during low to medium flows and the uncertainty during high flows is ungraded. This is based on four manual physical flow gaugings performed per year. At these sites, the water surface level is measured constantly by on-site equipment. This water level is used to estimate a flow rate, based on a rating curve produced by physical flow gauging in as many flow conditions as possible.
- There is some uncertainty in the flow rates. The river flows have not been gauged under all flow conditions and the river channel can change from time to time, due to deposition and movement of river sediments, which impacts the cross-sectional area of the channel and changes the velocity of the water.
Data source: Bureau of Meteorology
Residual catchment inflows in the river reaches downstream of the gauges, and in ungauged and tidal streams were estimated from the AWRA-L model.
Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Unregulated River Water Sources, Water resourcing licence database, annual reports and meter readings
Diversions: statutory rights
The estimated annual water abstraction under riparian right for stock and domestic purposes and for cultural purposes was extracted from Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Region Unregulated River Water Sources and the Water Sharing Plan for the Kangaroo River Water Source.
No cultural basic rights are estimated to occur in areas other than the Kangaroo River system.
Allocation
The Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Unregulated River Water Sources (NSW Office of Water 2011a) and Department of Industry, Lands and Water licence system detail the rules for surface water and groundwater allocations for access licences with shared components under several categories; individual holder for stock and domestic, urban holder (local water utility, major utility, domestic and stock (town water supply) and other lump holders (unregulated).
Allocation remaining
The remaining surface water and groundwater allocation corresponds to the volume of water allocation that can be carried over between water years. The water allocation remaining at 30 June 2016 is calculated as shown in Table N4.
| Account | |
| Opening balance at 1 July 2016 | |
| add | Allocation |
| less | Allocated abstraction |
| less | Adjustment and forfeiture |
| equals | Closing balance at 30 June 2017 |
Adjustment and forfeitures
While carryover of unused surface water allocation is allowed under the Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Region Unregulated River Water Sources, for licences categorised under 'local water utility', the carryover volume could not be quantified. Therefore, for the purposes of the National Water Account, the closing balance of remaining allocation is zero.
Water Sharing Plan for the Greater Metropolitan Unregulated River Water Sources
Allocated diversion: individual users
Department of Industry, Lands and Water estimated the usage (13,005 ML) to be 10% of entitlement based on metered usage within the Hawkesbury Nepean. The usage ratio was assumed to be representative of the entire Greater Metropolitan Sydney Area, as no meter readings were available outside of the Hawkesbury Nepean (excluding local water utility and major water utility).
EnergyAustralia diverted 7,496 ML ML from Thomsons Creek Reservoir, Lake Lyell and Lake Wallace for the Mt Piper and Wallerawang power stations. It was based on meter reading data.
Diversion: statutory rights
The annual extraction for domestic and stock rights in the water accounts is assumed to be the volume stated in the water sharing plan.
Database, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and meter readings
Allocation diversion: urban system
The allocation diversion of surface water to urban system comprises of WaterNSW diversion and supply to urban holders: Goulburn Mulwaree Council, Sydney Water Corporation, Shoalhaven City Council, Wingecarribee Shire Council and raw and unfiltered water supplied by WaterNSW to retail customers.
The calculation is based on metered raw water diversion from surface water and inflow to water treatment plants. Raw water supplied directly as untreated (nonpotable water) is the metered diverted volume from the water source. For sources managed through WaterNSW entitlements, the surface water diversion volumes are reported by them, and have some slight differences to the reported inflow to water treatment plants by the respective water authorities.
The uncertainty is estimated to be +/– 10%.
Discharge: user
EnergyAustralia discharged treated wastewater from Wallerawang Power Station to the Coxs River. Ultrasonic flow meters were used to measure the discharge.
Uncertainty associated with metered data is +/– 2%.
Delivery: inter-region agreement / inter-region claim on water
The WaterNSW and EnergyAustralia have an inter-basin claim on the Fish River Water Supply Scheme for which there is an upper limit for annual allocation. This claim is subject to a number of operating rules and restrictions depending on the levels observed in the supply storages (Oberon Dam and Duckmaloi Weir).
The diverted volume is based on metered flow measurements provided by Department of Industry, Lands and Water. There are provisions to carryover allocations up to 20% into the following year (see Table N5).
| Authority | Entitled maximum allocation (ML) | Diversion (ML) | Carryover as at 30 June 2017 (ML) |
| EnergyAustralia | 8,184 | 1,540 | 1,637 |
| WaterNSW | 3,650 | 2,172 | 730 |
| Total | 11,834 | 3,712 | 2,367 |
Claims: inter-region
In addition to the above, Lithgow City Council has entitlements for which there is an upper limit for annual allocation from the Fish River Water Supply Scheme to supply water to its storages under urban inter-region claim on water. There is also the ability to carry over a maximum of 20% of the total allocation into the following year. The volume was measured using ABB magflow meters.
Metered and estimated data provided by water authorities
Wastewater collected
The 'Wastewater collected' volume is estimated using the metered inflow to wastewater treatment plants and sewer mining plants within the region:
- minus any recirculation such as treated wastewater volume that was reported as discharge back to sewer in the region, to avoid double counting.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- Given wastewater volumes are typically measured at the treatment plants (and not at customer connections), the collected wastewater volume includes any variation due to (a) ingress of stormwater; (b) infiltration of groundwater; and (c) unreported wastewater overflows to stormwater
- Where inflow meter readings are not available, outflow meter readings have been used, which could underestimate the volume as it assumes no losses during wastewater treatment.
- This volume does not include wastewater collected for individual or community wastewater management systems.
The uncertainty of the estimated volume is estimated to be in the range of +/– 20%.
Allocation diversion: surface water
The 'Allocated diversion: surface water' volume is calculated from the volume of surface water diverted (metered at the source) and inflow to water treatment plants.
WaterNSW reports surface water diversions volumes for entitlements that they manage. These volumes may be slightly different to the reported inflow to water treatment plants by the respective water authorities.
The assumption made was as follows:
- Where metered inflows to water treatment plants are not available, these volumes are assumed to equal the metered outflow volume (i.e. no water losses occur during the treatment process).
Supply system delivery: urban users
The 'Supply system delivery: urban users' volume includes urban consumption of potable and nonpotable water and is derived from:
- customer meters
- billing meters
- estimated non-revenue water volumes.
Urban consumption consists of residential, commercial, industrial, municipal use and small scale agriculture/irrigation uses.
The assumption made was as follows:
- The volume delivered to non-urban users (i.e. supply to irrigation schemes and the environment) is not included in the reported volume.
The uncertainty is estimated to be +/– 7%.
Leakage: groundwater
This volume now includes volumes that were historically reported under “leakage: landscape” which accounted for pipe bursts, losses in water treatment, and disposal to sewer from the water supply system. The real losses component of non-revenue water reported as leakage: groundwater is based on both avoidable and unavoidable losses (including pipe network background leaks, pipe leaks and bursts, tank and service reservoir leakage and overflows) and is calculated using the following equation:
Real losses = Non-revenue water – (Apparent losses + Unmetered authorised consumption).
The volume of apparent losses comprises two components: unauthorised consumption (e.g. water theft); and customer meter under-registration (e.g. meter inaccuracies).
The assumptions made were as follows:
- Where non-revenue water real losses are reported as a combined volume for pipe bursts and background leakage, with no breakdown, this was reported in 'Leakage: groundwater', which may overestimate the volume.
- Sydney Water estimated leakage within their wastewater system at wastewater treatment plants as well as from the water supply system.
The uncertainity is estimated to be +/– 25%.
Leakage in the wastewater system is reported under 'other wastewater system decreases'.
Discharge: sea
The 'Discharge: sea' volume is the metered volume of disposals from the wastewater system and recycled water system to the sea, estuaries, inlets and portions of rivers and streams with tidal impacts (which are considered outside of the region).
The assumptions made was as follows:
- Where metered disposal data is not available, the volume is estimated based on the difference between metered inflow to a wastewater treatment plant and metered volume of recycled water used.
The uncertainty is estimated to be +/– 10%.
Recycled water delivery: urban users
The 'Recycled water delivery: urban users' is derived from :
- customer meters; and
- billing meters onsite re-use water meters.
The volume excludes recycled water re-circulated within the wastewater treatment process.
Urban consumption consists of residential, commercial, industrial, municipal, onsite (water and wastewater treatment plant) use, small scale agriculture/irrigation uses, and ‘other’ use which includes non-revenue recycled water volumes due to pipe-bursts, leakage, apparent losses and other non-revenue recycled water.
Wastewater and recycled water discharge: surface water
The 'Wastewater and recycled water discharge: surface water' volume is metered and includes:
- disposal of treated wastewater to rivers and other surface water
- discharge of recycled water for environmental purposes.
Treated wastewater disposal to rivers and streams which are estuarine in nature, or subject to tidal impacts, are not reported in this volume, but reported as discharge outside the region (to sea).
Other supply system decreases
The 'Other supply system decreases' volume was assumed to be the non-revenue water associated with apparent losses, the remaining non-revenue water from the urban water supply system (if not reported in 'Leakage: groundwater'), and ‘own use’ which is the volume of water used by the utilities on site for purposes such as wash down, toilet flushing and watering gardens.
The non-revenue volume was calculated based on physical observations of bursts events. Real losses reported related to pipe leakage is reported in Leakage: groundwater.
Where pipe bursts and background leakages are provided as a combined volume, for simplification this is reported as Leakage: groundwater because the leakage volume to landscape cannot be separated.
Remaining non-revenue water is estimated using:
- the difference based on a water balance between metered water sourced and supplied to customers, and/or
- the difference between metered supply into the urban water supply system and metered volume of water consumed (revenue water) and subtracting real losses, and/or
- modelling software of network real losses (leakages and busts) and apparent losses (unauthorised/authorised unbilled use), and/or
- time to repair leaks, and/or
- difference between inlet meter and outlet meter of water treatment plants for treatment losses.
Own use was not reported.
The uncertainty is estimated to be +/– 20%.
Other wastewater and recycled water system decreases
The 'Other wastewater and recycled water decreases' volume is the sum of the following two components:
- losses from the wastewater treatment system
- losses during management of treated wastewater.
Losses from the wastewater system are estimated based on the metered inflow and outflow/disposal/customer meters, or estimated based on observations.
Wastewater overflows or spills are estimated based on observation or monitoring of the sewer network. This may occur at emergency relief systems built into the network or uncontrolled points at manholes and network leaks.