Perth
Quantification approaches
Summary of quantification approaches
Table 1 outlines the quantification approaches used to derive the item volumes for the Perth region. For a more detailed description of the quantification approach, click on the relevant item name in the table.
Detail of quantification approaches
Water storage product data
Storages
Storage volume at the start and end of the year was calculated using water level data (metres above Australian Height Datum) collected at each storage. Rating tables established for each storage were used to convert the height measurement to a volume.
The volume of individual storages was aggregated to present the total volume for the line item as detailed in the supporting information table. The uncertainty range for the storage volume is +/–5%.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- Storage–volume curves represent specifically surveyed parts of the storage and may not reflect the storage–volume relationship across the entire storage.
- Storages are subject to sedimentation and other physical changes over time, which in turn affects the accuracy of the storage–volume curves.
Stream monitoring data
River outflow from the region
The total volume of water that flows out to sea is the sum of the available volume of outflow from the four rivers that flow into the sea:
- Swan
- Canning
- Murray
- Harvey.
The river outflow was estimated using instantaneous discharge data (L/s) collected at the most downstream gauging station (nearest to the outlet to the sea) along a river. These data were converted to daily volume data (ML) to determine the total annual discharge (in ML) at each station during the year.
The most downstream gauging stations along the main channels of the Swan and Murray rivers are 616011 and 614065, respectively; however, the following figure shows that two tributaries flow into the Swan and Murray main channels at a confluence downstream of these two gauging stations. Therefore, the total outflow from the Swan and Murray rivers was the sum of the total annual discharge at the most downstream station plus the total annual discharge measured along the two tributaries.
Figure 1 Gauging stations used to calculate total outflow to sea
It is assumed that the river outflow to the sea is equal to the volume of discharge measured at the most downstream station along a river, that is, there is no adjustment made for the contributing area below the gauging station used to calculate the outflow.
This contributing area below the gauging stations is 9,173 km2, approximately 43% of the total area of the Perth region. Based on a drainage-area ratio equation, estimated outflow is approximately 980,000 ML, which is 1.75 times that reported in the Statement of Water Flows (555,390 ML). Given, however, that the ungauged component of the Perth region mainly lies on the Swan Coastal Plain, which is an area of relatively high rainfall-recharge, it is unlikely that this area will generate such a large amount of runoff. Instead, it is considered that the reported outflow to sea may be underestimated by up to 10–20%.
The Department of Water assigns quality codes to flow data in accordance with Table 2.
| Quality code | Description |
| 1 | uncertainty +/– 10% |
| 2 | uncertainty +/– 15% |
| 3 | uncertainty +/– 20% |
| 4 | uncertainty > +/– 20% |
| 5 | outside measured range |
| 6 | not reviewed/quality not known |
The total volume of water that outflows into the sea has a quality code of 4: uncertainty > +/– 20%. This quality code is the lowest quality of data recorded for all the station data.
Climate grid data
Precipitation and evaporation on/from surface water
Monthly precipitation grids for the region were produced using daily data from approximately 6,500 rain gauge stations and interpolated to a 0.05 degrees (5 km) national grid (Jones et al. 2007).
Potential evaporation across the region was estimated using the Australian Water Resources Assessment system Landscape model (AWRA-L) version 3.0 (Van Dijk 2010). The AWRA-L model uses a modified version of the Penman–Monteith method to produce the potential evaporation. Daily AWRA-L potential evaporation grids for the region were produced based on daily gridded climate data (including precipitation, solar radiance and temperature) that were available on a 0.05 degree (approximately 5 km) national grid (Jones et al. 2007).
The precipitation and evaporation at each waterbody (i.e., storages) was estimated from the proportionally weighted average of grid-cells that intersected each water feature. The volume was then estimated by multiplying by the surface area of each waterbody. The average monthly surface area of the storages was calculated from daily storage levels and capacity tables.
The limitations associated with this approach are:
- The dynamic storage surface areas calculated from the levels and capacity tables represent a monthly average and therefore will not capture changes that occur on a shorter temporal scale.
- The total surface area of the surface water store within the Perth region included only the storages (and not the rivers).
Runoff to surface water
Runoff in the Perth region was estimated based on the GR4J rainfall–runoff model running within the Catchment Water Yield Estimation Tool. The GR4J model has been used to estimate runoff from areas not modelled by the Department of Water's groundwater models (Figure 2), which already incorporates landscape water movement. Therefore, runoff was only modelled on the Darling Range in the eastern part of the region.
Figure 2 Runoff model area within the Perth region
Using climate grid data for the Perth region (including precipitation, temperature and solar radiation data), the GR4J model was calibrated to a number of unimpaired catchments in and around the Perth region. The calibrated parameters were then regionalised using nearest-neighbour regionalisation to provide a parameter set for each 0.05º (approximately 5 km) gridpoint across the region. The GR4J model was then used to estimate the runoff depth at each gridpoint within the region. Only runoff from the landscape is considered; therefore, the surface areas of the major surface water storages were excluded from the analysis.
The average runoff depth from the landscape into the surface water store was determined as the weighted mean of the relevant grid points within the region boundary. Mean runoff depth was converted to a runoff volume by multiplying runoff depth by the total area of the region (excluding surface water storages).
The estimated runoff was compared to historical flows in unimpaired catchments within the Perth region for the 2013–14 year and provided a suitable representation of the runoff for this year. The GR4J model was selected over the Australian Water Resource Assessment system Landscape (AWRA-L) version 3.0 model (used to estimate runoff for all other 2014 Account regions) because the AWRA-L model did not provide a suitable representation of runoff in this region.
The approach was subject to the assumptions of the GR4J model detailed in Perrin et al. (2003).
Water resourcing licence database and annual reports/meter readings
Water allocation remaining (or claims on water)
The water management year commences on the date the licence is issued. In most cases, particularly for individual users, the licence anniversary falls outside the standard water year (1 July–30 June). As a result, the water allocation remaining at the end of the 2013–14 year is the unused component of the annual allocation for the licence. The allocation remaining at 30 June 2014 is calculated as shown in Table 3.
| Account | |
| Opening balance (at 1 July 2013) | |
| add | Water liability increase (allocation announcement) |
| less | Entitled abstraction of allocated water |
| less | Water liability decrease (forfeiture) |
| equals | Closing balance (at 30 June 2014) |
Adjustment and forfeiture of water allocation/claim on water
The portion of water allocation that has not been abstracted at the end of the licence water year is forfeited (i.e., there is no carry-over of entitlements). Therefore, forfeiture is calculated as the total annual allocation for each licence minus the allocation abstraction during the licence water year. Individual user entitlements that are terminated during the year are also considered to be forfeitures.
Entitled abstraction of allocated water to individual users
The entitled abstraction of allocated water by individual users (both surface water and groundwater) during the licensed water year is derived from a combination of metered data and estimates. Where metered data are available, the abstraction is calculated as the actual abstraction during the year. Where metered data are not available, the following methods were used to estimate the volume of abstraction:
- For licences that expired and were renewed during the 2013–14 year, the volume of abstraction is estimated to be the full licensed allocation.
- For licences that expired during the 2013–14 year (and were not renewed), the volume of abstraction is estimated to be the allocation remaining at 1 July 2013 (i.e., the allocation remaining at the start of the year is assumed to be abstracted before the licence expired).
- For new licences that were created during the 2013–14 year, the volume of abstraction is estimated to be the full allocation, multiplied by the ratio of the number of days from the licence issue date until 30 June 2014 to the number of days in the year.
There is not sufficient information relating to actual abstraction to provide more accurate estimates of abstraction for all licences, particularly individual users. The pro-rata estimates of abstraction assume that the full annual entitlement is abstracted each year and that the rate of abstraction is uniform throughout the year. It is unlikely on both counts that this will be the case for all licences.
The expected error associated with measured abstraction data is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c). For estimated data the uncertainty is unquantified.
Water allocation announcements (or increase of claim on water)
Individual user licences are generally issued for periods of between one and ten years, with an annual abstraction amount specified and with annual compliance arrangements in place.
The maximum amount of abstraction for each year for urban water and irrigation scheme supply is announced by the Minister for Water on an annual basis. The announced allocation is made after a review by the Department of Water of storage and aquifer levels in the Perth region in October of the reporting year.
More information on these allocations and the associated water access entitlement is given in the Water rights, entitlements, allocations and restrictions note.
Operational Data Storage System and Water Corporation Annual Report 2014
Discharge from urban water system (to surface water)
The volume of water transferred from the urban water system to surface water storages is based on measured inflow data at the storages. The volume of riparian releases from the urban water system are based on measured discharge data at the environmental releases points.
The expected error associated with these discharges is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Entitled abstraction of allocated water to urban water system
The entitled abstraction of allocated water for the urban water system (both surface water and groundwater) during the licensed water year is based on measured data collected at the outlet of the water source using a cumulative water meter.
The expected error associated with these abstractions is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Managed aquifer recharge
Treated wastewater from the Beenyup Wastewater Treatment Plant is transferred to the Advanced Water Recycling Plant where it undergoes further treatment to produce water that meets Australian guidelines for drinking water. This treated wastewater is then recharged to the Leederville aquifer. The volume of aquifer recharge is based on metered data at the recycling plant that is collected on an almost continuous basis.
The expected error associated with this volume is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Discharge from urban water system to groundwater
Treated wastewater from the Kwinana Wastewater Treatment Plant is infiltrated to the groundwater store via infiltration ponds. The volume of treated wastewater infiltrated to groundwater is based on metered data at the treatment plant that is collected on an almost continuous basis.
It is assumed that the entire volume of treated wastewater discharged to infiltration ponds infiltrates into the groundwater store; however, it is likely that some water may be lost through evaporation.
The expected error associated with this discharge is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Urban water supply system
The storage volume of the urban water supply system is comprised of two components: the distribution pipe network and the service reservoirs.
The volume of water within the urban distribution pipe network was calculated using a geographic information system (GIS) layer of the pipe network. The attributes of the GIS layer were used to select trunk mains and pipes used for distribution and reticulation. Only those features that are actively used for the potable network were selected. The total volume of water within the system was calculated by summing the volume of each section of pipe within the system. The volume of a section of pipe is the product of the length of the pipe section (km) by the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2).
The volume of water within the service reservoirs of the urban supply system is measured on a daily basis at each reservoir. The total storage volume in these service reservoirs at the end of the year was that measured at 30 June. The uncertainty associated with this volume is estimated to be +/– 10%.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- This value is an estimate of the volume of water within the supply system for the Perth metropolitan area; that is, it does not include water stored in the supply system for the Mandurah–Murray area.
- It is assumed that all the pipes in the urban potable water supply system are at full capacity and have a uniform diameter.
Wastewater collected
Total inflow into each wastewater treatment plant within the Perth region is based on measured inflow data collected by flow meters installed at the site.
The inflow volume into wastewater treatment plants is estimated to be in the range of +/– 5–10%.
Delivery of water from outside region to urban water system
This line item represents the transfer of water to Perth's urban water system from the Mundaring Reservoir, which is not considered a surface water asset in the Perth region as it primarily supplies water to the Goldfields and Agricultural region outside the Perth region boundary. The volume of water transferred is measured on an almost continuous basis by a flow meter installed at Perth's urban water supply system.
The expected error associated with this transfer is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Delivery of desalinated water to urban water system
Total desalinated water used for urban water supply is based on measured outflow data at the Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, located in Kwinana, and the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant, located near Binningup.
It is assumed that all desalinated water is supplied directly to the urban water supply system. Some desalinated water is transferred to surface water storages prior to consumption by urban water users. This water is included in Discharge from urban water system to surface water.
The expected error associated with this supply is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Delivery to urban water system users
Total water supply to urban users within the Perth region from the urban water supply system during the year is the total of consumers' meter readings as provided in the Water Corporation annual report 2014.
The volume of recycled water supplied to users is based on measured discharge data collected by flow meters installed at the wastewater treatment plant.
The expected error associated with the delivery of water to users is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Wastewater discharge outside of region and other wastewater discharge
Wastewater discharge outside of region refers to treated wastewater discharged to the sea; other wastewater discharge refers to treated wastewater discharged to infiltration lagoons.
The total volume of water discharged into the sea and infiltration lagoons is based on estimated data. The volume of discharge from the treatment plants is estimated by subtracting the volume of recycled wastewater from the total inflow of water into the treatment plant. Both inflow and recycled volume data are based on measured discharge data collected at the site.
The wastewater discharge volumes are estimated to be in the range of +/– 5–10%.
Transfer of water outside of region
This line item represents the transfer of water from Perth's urban water system to the Goldfields and Agricultural region and Western Australia's southwest region. The volumes of water transferred are measured on an almost continuous basis by flow meters installed at Perth's urban water supply system.
The expected error associated with this transfer is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Other urban water system decreases
This line item refers to non-revenue water, which is water that is lost before it reaches the customer. Part of this non-revenue water is presented in Urban water system leakage to groundwater. The other non-revenue water volume (11,180 ML) is not measured but is estimated based on the difference between the metered volume of water supplied (265,784 ML) and the metered volume of water consumed (revenue water: 233,850 ML) and subtracting the calculated leakage to groundwater (20,754 ML).
The other non-revenue losses are estimated to be in the range of +/– 5–10%.
Operational Data Storage System: seepage data
Surface water leakage to landscape
Instantaneous seepage data (L/s) are measured at storages within the Perth region on an approximately daily basis. These data were inputted to Hydstra and converted to daily volume data (ML) to determine the total annual seepage (in ML) at each storage.
The limitations with this approach is that seepage data are only collected at approximately half of the storages within the Perth region; consequently, the reported leakage volume is likely to be an underestimate. It is assumed that the dam seepage measuring points reflect the total seepage from the storages.
Operational Data Storage System and Facilities Mapping System
Urban water system leakage to groundwater
Leakage from the urban water system (defined as real losses) was calculated using the following equation:
Real losses = Non-revenue water – (Apparent losses + Unmetered authorised consumption)
Non-revenue water is water that is lost before it reaches the customer. The volume of non-revenue water is calculated by subtracting the metered volume of water consumed (revenue water) from the metered volume of water supplied. The revenue water was first adjusted to take into account the difference between total water delivered bulk meter readings (done daily) and the customer meter readings (done twice per year for each customer). This is known as the meter lag adjustment.
The volume of apparent losses comprises two components: unauthorised consumption (e.g., water theft); and customer meter under-registration (e.g., meter inaccuracies). The unauthorised consumption is assumed to be 0.1% of the metered volume of water supplied. Customer meter under-registration is assumed to be 2% of revenue water. The volume of unmetered authorised consumption is calculated as 0.5% of the metered volume of water supplied. These percentage estimates are based on the infrastructure leakage index calculations for Perth and Mandurah.
It is important to note that there is no differentiation between leakage to the landscape and leakage to the groundwater store; it is simply assumed, in this case, that all losses go to the groundwater store.
PRAMS version 3.4 and PHRAMS groundwater models
The Department of Water use the Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) version 3.4 and Peel–Harvey Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PHRAMS) to estimate the natural water movement to and from the groundwater store within the Perth region.
As shown in the following figure, PRAMS estimates groundwater movement for the area north of Mandurah. PHRAMS estimates groundwater movement for the Peel–Harvey area south of Mandurah. The volumes reported in this account refer to the natural water movement that occurs within each model area within the Perth region boundary.
Figure 3 Groundwater model areas relative to the Perth region boundary
Both models were initially developed for the purpose of estimating and assessing the impacts of changes in climatic conditions and varying extraction rates on the aquifers, not for the purposes of preparing water accounts. These models have since been modified to also provide data for water accounting.
Groundwater inflows and outflows to/from outside region
The Department of Water use the Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) version 3.4 and Peel–Harvey Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PHRAMS) to estimate groundwater flows to and from outside the region. Figure 3 shows each of the groundwater model areas within the Perth region.
Both groundwater models derive the lateral water movement between aquifers within the region and outside the region by defining the appropriate water balance zones and calculating the volume of water flowing across each boundary on an annual basis.
For estimating groundwater movement between aquifers within the Perth region and the ocean, both models apply a constant head at the coastline to estimate the volumes flowing through each boundary over the year. For the Peel–Harvey area, PHRAMS assumes that the estuary inlets along the coastline form part of the boundary.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- All groundwater flow to and from outside the region is via the north and south boundaries and the coastline. There is no groundwater flow between the model areas and the Darling Range in the eastern part of the region due to the geology of that area.
- Groundwater flow between the ocean and the modelled areas is estimated using a constant head at the coastline of zero (given the level of 0.0 m Australian Height Datum is mean sea level).
- Flows from the estuaries within the Peel–Harvey modelling area were estimated and included in the reported amount; that is, the estuary systems in the Peel–Harvey area were considered part of the 'coastline' boundary in PHRAMS. These estuary systems are relatively minor in the Perth modelling area and therefore were not considered in PRAMS.
Recharge from landscape
The Department of Water use the Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) version 3.4 and Peel–Harvey Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PHRAMS) to estimate groundwater recharge from the landscape within the Perth region. Figure 3 shows each of the groundwater model areas within the Perth region.
PRAMS calculates the recharge of water into the Perth region aquifers from the unsaturated zone above (i.e., the landscape store). The model delineates a series of horizontal cells called representative recharge units, and collates data on:
- land use, vegetation classifications, leaf area indexes and soil classifications (spatial datasets)
- water table depths and plant root depths
- climatic data throughout the region.
The CSIRO WAVES model was then used to calculate flows from some of the specific land use areas, such as agriculture, pine plantations and native bushland (simpler models are used for general land use areas including residential, industrial and parkland areas). The Vertical Flux Model calculates recharge on a daily basis and MODFLOW was used to do the time step calculation.
PHRAMS calculates the inflow of water into the Peel–Harvey model area and assumes that most of the inflow is recharge from rainfall. The CSIRO WAVES model is used to estimate the maximum annual recharge based on the following equation:
Recharge = 0.8 x Rainfall – 280
The annual recharge and annual pan evaporation were distributed into monthly amounts using a monthly distribution table. The monthly accounts were then applied to the specific geological areas (which have their own recharge rates according to soil types and land cover) to calculate total recharge.
The two groundwater models use different techniques to calculate recharge. PRAMS is a more complicated and sophisticated model than PHRAMS. PRAMS uses daily climatic data to determine total recharge during the year, whereas PHRAMS is based on annual data inputs.
Recharge and discharge from/to surface water
The Department of Water use the Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) version 3.4 and Peel–Harvey Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PHRAMS) to estimate groundwater recharge from the landscape within the Perth region. Figure 3 shows each of the groundwater model areas within the Perth region.
Both groundwater models calculate the flow of water between drains and rivers and the aquifers. The models assume that all groundwater flows between the aquifers and the surface water stores occurs from the aquifers (i.e., there is no recharge from surface water).
PRAMS removes water from drain and river cells when the water table rises above the specified invert level of the drain cell. The volume of water removed is the volume of groundwater discharged to surface water.
PHRAMS uses a simplified drain package developed within MODFLOW to calculate the discharge to these drains and rivers from the aquifer. Two classes of drains were assumed:
- major drains that are permanent and deep (including major rivers)—conductance is calculated at 10,000 m2/day and a depth of 2 m
- minor drains—conductance is calculated at 10,000 m2/day and a depth of 1.5 m.
Groundwater discharges to drains and rivers were calculated when the local groundwater level rises above the drain bed elevation.
Perennial lakes provide major groundwater sinks in the water table aquifer and are subject to rainfall and evaporation. These were included in the water table aquifer balance and modelled accordingly.
The assumptions made were as follows:
- Both models assume that all flows between the groundwater store and rivers and drains comes from the aquifers, hence recharge from surface water is zero. This assumption is consistent with measured and simulated discharges. Wetlands were considered to be part of the water table aquifer, hence any groundwater recharge from wetlands was not considered.
- It is assumed that there is no groundwater discharge to the major surface water storages within the region. Only groundwater discharge to rivers and drains is considered in this line item.
- The two models use different techniques to calculate discharge. PHRAMS uses a single conductance figure for all rivers and drains, and only two depth categories. It is assumed that once groundwater is above the drain bed elevation, there is a consistent flow of water out of the aquifer.
Discharge to landscape
The Department of Water use the Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) version 3.4 and Peel–Harvey Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PHRAMS) to estimate groundwater recharge from the landscape within the Perth region. Figure 3 shows each of the groundwater model areas within the Perth region.
Groundwater discharge to the landscape was estimated using PRAMS and PHRAMS. Both models calculate evapotranspiration from the saturated zone of the aquifers, which is considered to be equal to the groundwater discharge to landscape. Note that this should not be confused with evapotranspiration from the unsaturated zone, which is rainfall water that has entered the ground in the unsaturated zone but is removed before it reaches the water table at the top of the saturated zone.
Both models use the MODFLOW evaporation module to calculate evapotranspiration from the saturated zone open water wetland surfaces and near surface water table areas.
Entitled extraction of non-allocated groundwater to users
The Department of Water does not have sufficient metering information relating to actual extraction from domestic non-licensed bores to determine the total volume of water extracted. Consequently, the extraction was estimated based on Australian Bureau of Statistics survey results (2009) for the Perth metropolitan area. These usage figures in the Perth metropolitan area were then extrapolated to also include the southwest area (around Mandurah). The estimated annual extraction per bore is 0.405 ML per year, which is based on the initial results of the Department of Water's domestic bore metering project for several dozen domestic bores across Perth.
The estimate for domestic non-licensed extraction is based on a number of assumptions, including:
- The ABS domestic bore survey is relevant for the southwest area, for which there is no alternative, independent research or evidence available; and
- The usage based on the Department of Water's research for several dozen bores was used to estimate the usage of all non-licensed bores in the region.
Supervisory Control and Data Aquisition system
Delivery of water from outside region
The total volume of water transferred into Harvey Reservoir from the Collie River Irrigation District is based on measured data observed at the pump station located at the border of the Collie River and Harvey irrigation districts.
It is assumed that the volume of water measured at the flow meter at the border of the Collie River and Harvey irrigation districts is equal to the inflow at Harvey Reservoir (i.e., no leaks or transmission losses). This is a reasonable assumption given the transfer occurs via a closed pipe.
The expected error associated with this transfer is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Entitled diversion of allocated surface water to irrigation scheme
The entitled diversion of allocated water for the Harvey Water Irrigation Area during the licensed water year is equal to the total volume of water diverted from the storages. The volumes diverted are metered at the storage outlet continuously and reported on a monthly basis.
The expected error associated with this diversion is +/– 5%. The Department of Water requires that all water meters, when tested under in situ conditions, must be within 5% accuracy across the full flow rate range (Department of Water 2009c).
Delivery to irrigation scheme users
Total water supply to irrigation scheme users within the Harvey Water Irrigation Area during the year is the total of consumers' meter readings. Meter readings are read on a monthly basis and recorded in Harvey Water's customer information and billing system.
This volume is estimated to be in the range of +/– 5–10%.